For example, Compton, Fuchs, Fuchs & Bryant (2006) compared the utility of prediction models with status only and status plus growth and found that a model including the level and slope of 5 weeks of progress monitoring on word identification fluency provided more accurate identification of second grade reading difficulty than did initial first grade phonological awareness, rapid naming, oral language, and word identification fluency. However, other researchers have suggested that the examination of reading difficulty in an RTI model should not only take into account reading status at particular points in time, but also reading growth over time (e.g., Baker et al., 2008 McMaster, Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2002 Speece & Ritchey, 2005 Vellutino et al. ![]() Furthermore, research suggests that even in fall of kindergarten, students’ pre-reading skills such as letter naming fluency, phonological awareness, and oral vocabulary and their behavior predict subsequent reading performance ( Al Otaiba & Fuchs, 2006 Bishop & League, 2006 Coyne, Kame-enui, Simmons, & Harn, 2004 NELP, 2008). Kindergarten end of year reading and behavioral outcome measures have been shown to predict reading trajectories from first to fourth grade ( Spira, Bracken, & Fischel, 2005). Thus, in the present study, we examine response to kindergarten classroom reading instruction, and evaluate its predictive relation to students’ first grade reading skills. ![]() Kindergarten is often the first opportunity school personnel have to provide instruction and to evaluate students’ responsiveness. Consequently, the accurate identification of students who need early intervention has become a key factor in the prevention of reading difficulties ( Adams, 1990 Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). One of the primary foci of RTI models is prevention and a large corpus of research demonstrates the positive effects of early and targeted reading interventions for students at-risk for reading difficulties ( Cavanaugh, Kim, Wanzek, & Vaughn, 2004 Mathes et al., 2005 Torgesen et al., 1999 Vellutino, Scanlon, Small, & Fanuele, 2006 Vellutino, Scanlon, Zhang, & Schatschneider, 2008 ). However, there are still unanswered questions related to the implementation of RTI including the reliability and validity of the decision-making process for determining student response to instruction and referral for more intensive instructional regimes. Implementation of RTI models has shown promise for improving overall reading outcomes and decreasing the number of students with reading difficulties in the elementary grades (e.g., Gersten et al., 2008). In recent years, many schools have begun to implement response to intervention (RTI) models for the prevention of reading difficulties and to assist in the identification of students with learning disabilities (LD). Implications for future research and RTI implementation are discussed. Specifically, the steeper the students’ trajectory to a satisfactory outcome, the less likely they were to demonstrate good performance in first grade. Results indicate that controlling for students’ end of kindergarten reading, their growth across kindergarten on a variety of language and literacy measures suppressed predictions of first grade performance. Teachers followed an explicit core reading program and overall, classroom instruction was rated as effective. We observed reading instruction in 20 classrooms, examined response rates to kindergarten Tier 1 instruction, and predicted students’ first grade reading performance based upon kindergarten growth and end of year reading performance ( n = 203). ![]() This study used a longitudinal correlational design, conducted in 7 ethnically and socio-economically diverse schools. The present study was part of our larger ongoing longitudinal RTI investigation within the Florida Learning Disabilities Center grant. Many schools are beginning to implement multi-tier response to intervention (RTI) models for the prevention of reading difficulties and to assist in the identification of students with learning disabilities (LD).
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